Trying To Sell An IPod Essay Example for Free

Trying To Sell An IPod EssayHave you ever ridden a bus or the train feeling bored without no one to verbalise to and wishing that you were listening to something good? Have you ever got on a car or other public transport fomite or went to a public place where the medicament that is playing is somewhat not your preference and you wished that you could somehow change the station? Have you ever comprehend your favorite music playing and wished that you could turn the dial up so that you could enjoy it more? Well wish no more because with an iPod you commode do all these things and so much more. With todays busy and noisy world, both person tries to find a place where they disregard find peace to be commensurate to concentrate and do what they have to do. This can be hard, which is why a lot of people choose to lose themselves in the world of music with their music players. Also, music most definitely kills boredom. There be a lot of times where you find yourself waiting in line without no one to talk to or waiting for someone to arrive and you find yourself standing there looking like an idiot without nothing to do. Other times you find yourself look at those people with their own music players who looks like they argon enjoying what they are hearing and it makes you want to listen to what they are listening to. Digital music players are such popular devices right now because they make music and other files manageable and portable. You can see almost every teenager and young adults bobbing their heads with the grind away of their music from their players. Adults also use this to play music, interpose files, and do other things like podcasting. Podcasting are digital media files, such as audio or video, which are produced in a series (Bertucci What is Podcasting?). Aside from listening to music, students can also find that an iPod has m each other uses. An iPod can be used as a course content dissemination excessivelyl, recording tool, support too l, or a file storage and transfer (Duke University iPod First Year Experience Final valuation Report). So you think that you do not need an iPod? Let me tell you why you should change your mind. There are a lot of digital music players out in the market today however, they are all basically the same because they are all capable of playing music in different formats. So why iPod in particular? The first thing that a consumer looks for is quality. With an iPod, there is no need to worry because its producer, which is Apple, is a very trust brand when it comes to technology (Evans Apple Most believe US Brand). The iPod series are very simple yet show a crystalize of its own that not many companies can not produce. You can find whatever kind of player you need because every player that Apple produces fits every individuals needs. Apple offers the iPod shuffle, iPod nano, iPod classic, and iPod touch. For those with limited budget and could settle for a memory that can hold only abou t 240 songs, an iPod shuffle is the best choice. The 1GB shuffle only be $49 while the newer model with 2GB is at $69 (iPod shuffle). It comes in a variety of colors and with its size, no one will have any problem carrying it around. The iPod classic is probably the best choice among all the iPod products. At $249, it boasts of 160GB storage capability and a sleek design (iPod classic).This is enough to store all your favorite music or albums, as well as photos and podcasts, and other files that you need to carry around. An iPod is something for both the average consumer and the techies. It is simple to use and files can be stored with just a few steps yet it offers so much more to those who would like to take advantage of its full services. If money is not an issue for you and you are always on the go, then an iPhone may be the best to offer. It doubles as an iPod and a cellphone so that there is no need to carry two devices at one time. Having an iPhone lessens the probability th at you might lose the other or both because you have too many things in your hand. Imagine life without music. This will be what your life would be like without an iPod. It can become sad, boring, and quiet. Without it, you will be able to hear every other noise there is in the world, which will make it hard to concentrate. Another great thing about an iPod is that it can be a social tool. It can become something to talk about between friends or colleagues. It can be added to the long list of topics that guys can use to talk about with the girls they like. For girls, it can be something to do while trying to ignore a guy you do not want to talk to. Many people argue that the iPod has become too commercial and the individuality is lost all together. However, people should realize and keep in mind that this is bound to happen because of its success. Other music players do not do well on the market simply because they can not beat the iPods features and looks. With its affordable price and unbeatable features, why would you settle for anything less? Everyone owning an iPod does not matter because what it does for you is more important.Works CitedBertucci, Brian. What is Podcasting? About.com. 14 April 2008. http//podcasting.about.com/od/basics101/a/whatis.htmDuke University iPod First Year Experience Final Evaluation Report. June 2005. 14 April 2008 cit.duke.edu/pdf/reports/ipod_initiative_04_05.pdfEvans, Jonny. Apple Most Trusted US Brand. Macworld. 17 May 2007. 14 April 2008 http//www.macworld.co.uk/news/index.cfm?RSSnewsID=18062iPod classic. Apple. 14 April 2008 http//www.apple.com/ipodclassic/iPod shuffle. Apple. 14 April 2008 http//www.apple.com/ipodshuffle/

Holfstede’s Cultural Constraints Essay Example for Free

Holfstedes heathen Constraints EssayIn his article Cultural Constraints in Management Theories, G. Holfstede (1993) argues his main point that there is really no universal management theory, such that the means to manage organizations greatly vary crossways countries and cultures. For instance, the conceit of management in the United States is different from, say, Asia or Europe, let alone apply to the two latter regions. A specific management concept or exercise may be accepted in America and it does not mean that it is also accepted in some another(prenominal) part of the world. Holfstede begins by exploring the origins of the concept of management in cultures in varying times and notes the differences in the management theories. For example, managers are said to be cultural heroes in British and American regions while Germans see the engineer as the one having a heroic role just because German presidents and CEOs already have know their specialized skills and, hence, do es not call for a manager. In Japan, the permanent worker group bears the heroic role and that these workers are controlled not by managers but by their group.French people, on the other hand, do not have the notion of managers as Americans know of them. Rather, French workers think of one another as cadres, cadres creation a social class obtained by learning at the proper schools and a social class maintained for a lifetime. Another case is that of Holland where the practice of managing people rests on the need for a consensus among all the involved individuals. These practices are established neither by contractual relationship nor by class distinctions but by an open-ended balancing of interests and exchange of views.In essence, Holfstede firmly maintains that the American concept of management theories vary from nation to nation and culture to culture. That being said, no management theory unique to a certain country or culture can perfectly apply to another culture and country precisely because of the variations among these cultures and countries. Reference Holfstede, G. (1993). Cultural Constraints in Management Theories. Academy of Management Executive, 7(1) 81-94.

Pakistan is one of the top cotton producing countries of the world

Pakistan is one of the nobble cotton producing countries of the worldExecutive SummaryPakistan is one of the most top cotton producing country of the world. Pakistan has the tendency to produce the best quality cotton in the world, beca employment of that Pakistan exportations its cotton to contrasting buyers across the globe. Garment and material patience of Pakistan of necessity a component p art of investment to flourish its production plants to cave in more than and more to the country and others in the globe as well.Currently country creation in inflation affected the entire industry. As prices of all products take in gone extravagantly, companies are forced to produce little. The governmental situations in our country have made the industrial arena bare losses. The policies and laws are hindering the activities of the industry. Beca economic consumption of that the other competing countries are acquiring an edge oer Pakistan.More research postulate to be done in this sector to avail all the possible technologies to murder our material and garment industry break. Other than that our makes to start producing end wearable garments and then export them to attach the exports and increase awareness of the local brands. Currently popular cloth is working on producing jean for renowned brands of the world. Government demand to make struggles to establish the garment industry in Pakistan.Table of ContentContentsContents 2Introduction 4 perseverance Scenario 7Industry Facts and Figures 7Problems in industry 7Technology being implied 8Business Model epitome 8 uprise Analysis 12 energy 12Weakness 13Opportunity 16Threats 18SWOT Analysis (Summary) 19Strengths 19Weaknesses 19Opportunities 19Threats 19PEST Analysis 2020Political Outfit 2020Economical Analysis and Performance 20Social Liabilities and Duties 21Technological Requirements and up class 22PORTER Five Forces Model 231.Bargaining power of customers (demand scenario) 2424Factors 242.B argaining power of suppliers ( provide scenario) 24243. Threat of new entrants 26264. Threat of substitutes 275. Competitive rivalry 28Contri aloneion to Exports 30Conclusion 31References 32Garment Industry of PakistanIntroduction stuff and Garments is considered the most important sector of Pakistans economy and the largest industry with a 46% look at of total manufacturing. Accounting for 67% of exports, employment for 40% of the workforce and a 10.20% share in GDP confirms the importance of this sector. Pakistans large available human resource pool offers an important incentive for further growth of this get the picture intensive industry.Contribution of Textile Garment SectorPercentage ContributionTotal Manufacturing46%Total Exports67%Employment for Workforce40%Total treat in GDP10.20%Although Pakistan is the fourth largest cotton producer in the world with strong spinning and weaving bag, the look on added sector (cotton products) has a small share in exports. The main re ason is shortage of training facilities able to enhance skills and produce competent middle managers having in-depth knowledge of processes and hands-on experience in coeval technologies.Garment manufacturing is a major growing sub-sector of the cloth range chain. It consumes the majority of the workforce in Pakistans textile and garments industry and has been contributing towards the high growth-rate in exports as figures shows it is 67% contributing in export of Pakistan.However, the garment industry is now suffering from some acute problems in productivity, in quality, in care merchandising skills and thus facing a serious threat of a reduced share of international securities industrys. jibe to the World Banks report on the impact of Quota excretory product in Pakistan, the effect on apparel exports from Pakistan will be negative due(p) to stronger competition from other countries. The implication would be serious if no implement is taken to improve productivity and e fficiency.In the garments sector, Pakistans productivity is estimated to be only 37% of the benchmark established by China. Compared to this, Indias garments sector productivity is better, at 46%. For Pakistan, raising productivity by improving production process efficiency is disclose to reap benefits later on the Multi-Fibre Agreement was abolished. If Pakistan is able to increase its productivity in textiles and clothing by 60% and reach Chinas productivity level, the gain would likely be over US$ 1 billion per year.Keeping in thought process the emerging trend in the global market, there is a huge potential for Pakistans garment sector. However, to be hawkish in the global market after the removal of the quota regime in January 2005, it is imperative to have efficient and cost effective production systems with minimum wastages to attract buyers. The TUSDEC need assessment which included discussions/interviews with the key garment exporters cl early(a) revealed the need for u rgent reforms in the textile industry and especially in garment manufacturing and exporting as this is the most value added sector. This need had never before been felt as intensely as now, in the major garments clusters located in Lahore, Karachi, Sialkot, Faisalabad and Multan. In unison they expressed that the existing infrastructure of textile garments institutes in the country is not able to fulfill the requirement for skilled human resources to meet the immediate demand.The need assessment showed that an intervention for fast-track depicted object building of the garment industry to meet the challenges posed by the ever-changing demand of international markets was justified. To cope with this dire need, it was proposed to hire contradictory experts on eagle-eyed term basis to upgrade the knowledge and skills of the workers employed in the garment industry.Industry ScenarioAs quoted by Chairman of All Pakistan Textile Mill Association, Textiles are the most important indust ry in Pakistan. It accounts for just about 40 percent of manufacturing employment, over 60 percent of total exports, and over 30 percent of value-added production. Pakistans textile industry, based on locally grown cotton, produces cotton yarn, cotton cloth, and made-up textiles and apparel.Industry Facts and FiguresAs data cited at web published edition of aptma, Pakistan had a total of 503 spinning mills with an installed capacity of 10,437,000 spindles and 155,104 rotors. The weaving industry has 53 integrated units (composite units with spinning and weaving in one unit) with an installed capacity of 14,130 looms 512 shuttle less weaving units with an installed capacity of 13,340 1ooms and approximately 30,000 units in the power loom (shuttle loom) sector, with an estimated 225,253 looms. In PFY-97 it excessly had 670 finishing units with a production capacity of 3,460 gazillion sq. meters of fabric per annum, 700 knitwear units with 15,000 plain machines, and 4,000 garment un its with 160,000 industrial and 450,000 domestic sewing machines. Exports of all textiles in PFY-97 totaled a value of USD 5.4 billion. The major buyer of textile clothing and accessories was the United States, which purchased USD 309.2 million of goods. (Michelle, Pakistan Profile, January/February 2007)Problems in industryPakistans excessive economic reliance on the textile industry now necessitates the upgrade of its confused value-added textile products to higher value-added products and the development of additional export markets. The Government of Pakistan (GOP) has reportedly constituted a textile commission to examine the problems of the textile industry and guide its future planning in the effort to turn this vital sector of the country economy into a healthy and internationally competitive industry. The upgrade to value-added production will require more school machinery. Trade sources believe that given favorable rupee/dollar parity, the textile industry may be expecte d to grow by as frequently as 10 to 15 percent annually over the next 2-3 years.Technology being impliedIn PFY-98 Pakistan offered an import market of USD 213 million for the sale of textile machinery, equipment and parts. Statistics for domestic production are not available, but trade sources report that manufacture, which is gear to demand, is at the present time negligible. The market has declined drastically over the cash in ones chips six years. In PFY-93, Pakistan imported USD 789.2 million worth of textile machinery. Imports poisonous in subsequent years to USD 352.7 million in PFY-94, USD 294.9 in PFY-95, USD 187.0 million in PFY-96 and USD 129 million in PFY 97. Given improved financial conditions, the import market share is expected to increase by 10 percent annually over the next three years. (Citied at website of aptma.)Business Model AnalysisThe textile industry is today based almost entirely in the private sector as the inefficiency of the public sector units has fo rced the GOP to privatize them. The three remaining textile units in the public sector are integrated units and are to be offered for privatization in the very near future.Pakistans textile spinning industry is presently in a crisis. As a return of poor cotton harvest-festivals, the sezession of cotton subsidy and the export of raw cotton, the industry, whose feasibility has been based on the use of low-priced cotton, is no spaciouser viable.Pakistans weaving sector has an installed capacity of 14,130 looms in integrated weaving mills 13,340 looms in shuttless weaving units and approximately 200,500 to 225,250 looms in the power loom sector. The looms installed in the integrated units are nonagenarian and less than approximately 40 percent are working. The independent weaving units are a relatively new phenomenon in the Pakistan market, and have been created as a result of market demand, government incentives and the move towards higher quality products.Pakistans finishing indu stry is comprised of approximately 670 units, the majority of which are independent units and complimentary to the weaving industry. Their installed capacity is old and needs replacement. The integrated units are reported to have a capacity utilization of only 35 percent of installed capacity as most of their machinery is as well old and uses outdated applied science. (Citied at Directors Review of aptma.)Competing CountriesExport Share of Market- Trend AnalysisCountry1980199020002005Variance2000 2005China4.08.918.226.98.7Turkey0.33.13.34.31.0India1.72.33.13.0(0.1)Mexico0.00.54.42.6(1.8)Bangladesh0.00.62.02.30.3Vietnam0.91.70.8Pakistan0.30.91.11.30.2Sri Lanka0.30.61.41.0(0.4)Thailand0.72.61.91.5(0.4)Source United States Department of kitchen-gardeningGlobal Market SharesTop 15 retailers worldwideS. NoRetailerOriginMarket Share USD Millions1Wal-Mart Stores Inc.the States$219,0002Carrefour radicalFRANCE$61,5653Royal A holdHOLLAND$57,9764The Home Depot, IncUSA$53,5535The Kroger Co. USA$50,0986Metro AGGERMANY$43,3577TargetUSA$43,3558AlbertsonsUSA$37,9319KmartUSA$36,15110SearsUSA$35,84311SafewayUK$34,30112CostcoUSA$34,13713TescoUK$33,61414JCPennyUSA$32,00415Aldi EinkaufGERMANY$31,310(Source Stores/Deloitte Touch Tomahatsu)SWOT AnalysisStrength huffy material BasePakistan has high self sufficiency in raw material and is the fourth largest producer of cotton. Abundant use of cotton resources has made the Textile industry of Pakistan move towards the area of industrialization.LaborCheap labor has always been the backbone of the economy of Pakistan. Cheap and ample supply of labor strengthens the industrial and agriculture sector of the country. Around 39% of the labor force works in the textile sector. As Karl Marx said that we have to use the army of labor present in the country for productive means. Thus cheap and abundant labor means low cost of production.Rich hereditary patternDue to cultural diversity and rich heritage, designers come up with new different a nd attractive designs which are appreciated worldwide. Our culture comprises of Sindhi, Punjabi, Balochi and Pushtoo values. Also we are besides influenced by the Indian culture through the media exposure, which of course gives the Pakistani designers an inspiration and taste of Karnataka, Rajhastani styles, etc. This varied culture and fusion among these two neighbours gives inspiration to the designers to give their best in terms of styles, creativity and fashion.Domestic MarketThe recent shift of the universe from the agrarian society to the urban areas, increased income levels and growth of the population raised the domestic demand. This means more factories more manufacturing units, more supply and more labor.WeaknessResearch DevelopmentDeveloped countries are using the applied science of genetic engineering and biotechnology to increase the quality and quantity of their cotton production. They are able to grow colored cotton, organic cotton and several different varieties cotton to added value to the textile chain. In Pakistan, there is very some research done on small scale by private companies to pay modified cotton fibers. Practically no efforts are being made by the APTMA in the RD of the textile industry to enhance the quality of its products, upgrade the technology used, and encourage effective methods of production in order to compete internationally. Instead the industry suffers miss of latest means of production and falling cotton crop output every year. Due to low quality of cotton crop, profitability decreases and the farmer switch to the other crop such as sugar cane, lemon yellow and thus the cotton production decreases.More Dependence on CottonAs the textile sector is heavily dependent on cotton production, low cultivation of cotton will deteriorate the textile industry. On the other hand, Pakistan lacks expertise in the development, production and marketing of synthetic products and fabrics required for items like swimwear, skiwear and industrial apparel. So far Pakistan has been unable to diversify in the export of textiles and is heavily dependent on undivided fibre that is cotton and its blends. This dependence on single crop economy is restricting the diversification of exports from Pakistan.Labor productivityDespite of the abundant supply of the labor, productivity of the labor is very low. According to a shoot by Federal Adviser on textiles, the regional competitors of Pakistan take75 minutes to complete and produce one piece of cloth whereas we take 133 minutes for the same work. We overly waste 30% in finishing and 12% in washing. European buyers recommended that we should cut our costs up to 45%in sewing by getting more efficient. Labor productivity can be improved by giving the labor appropriate training with the advancement of technology so as to make them more efficient and with lower wastage of resources. In China an average 70 hours of training are given to labor to enhance their expertise.Po or rootThe important resources and infrastructure, such as adequate of supply of water, continuous supply of electricity and gas, efficient logistics and transportation, tax structure, raw material supply are all basic requirements for the development of an industrial base. However, on the other hand, the industry is faced with rising charges of the energy sector, which increases the cost of production, making it difficult to compete with the other regional rivals.Poor Quality StandardsWith the exception of big and leading units who comply with global quality standards in textiles, most of the medium and small sized units can not ensure the reliable and consistent quality standards. Some of these textile units import second hand machinery from China, India, Korea, and Taiwan with no checks and balances on the quality of the machinery parts and tools. alternative is only given to the cheap and workable machinery with no concern of the quality of the machine, therefore, resulting in poor quality of the end product. The industry can generate more profit by adding more value to the product, as value can be measured in terms of quality, increased per unit price, etc. Pakistans textile industry should focus on latest material handling techniques and should train workers. The inability to timely modernize the equipment, machinery and labor has led to the decline of Pakistani textile competitiveness.Unstable Political SituationPolitical unrest, strikes and terrorism have critically affected the economy of Pakistan. Frequent changing of the government has adversely maligned the policies of the textile sector. According to the World Trade Review Pakistan has failed to take necessary steps needed to meet post Multi-Fiber Agreement (MFA) challenges for its textile industry owing to lack of political will by the successive governments. In 1978 World Bank surveyed the Pakistan textile industry and reported many deficiencies in this sector. It also gave certain measures to resolve these issues, but unfortunately all these problems still persist and the industry is still unable to keep its pace with the international market. Successive governments lacked the will to reform human resources and adapt the marketing techniques that resulted present scenario in this industry.System Orientation And Supply ChainNowadays, customers are very systematic in their work and the expect the same professionalism from their vendors. Unfortunately, we lack this capability and are not competent to struggle in the international business, thus losing many opportunities. On the other hand supply chain management is rarely implemented. We are disorganized, disconnected and dis torted. Time management is very much important aspect in the business and buyers expect on time pitching to match the retail launch of the Spring/ Summer or Autumn/Winter seasonal collections on time . Delayed delivery of export orders result increase in cost due to fines by the buyers and at times losing business altogether due to the breach the order con-tract.OpportunityPakistan Textile metropolisPakistan Textile City in Port Qasim, Karachi with an area of 1250 acres, will be completed in 2011 as a private public sector occasion venture. The main purpose of the textile city is to provide the textile industry with the world class infra structure to meet the global competitiveness and challenges and as to provide value added textile industrial zone. Its main features include one way window operation, constant supplies of gas and water, and uninterrupted power supply.MarketingTargeting the unexplored export markets with the help of aggressive sales and marketing will pave the way for the textile growth. Its all about hunting your opportunities with the handful of colorful lollipops. If we make investment in our sales force and train them in the fine art of marketing textile products, we can engender a much bigger market share from other smaller competitors. quislingism with Foreign CompaniesNo company in the world can afford to ignore the strategic and competitive benefits of making partnership with another company to strengthen the market position. By making partners with the foreign companies, we will be able to learn a lot from them in terms system orientation, supply chain and it would be feasible to import latest technology. We can also reduce our costs, comply with the inter-national standards, and add value to our products, easiness in marketing our products in different foreign regions, improved labor and thus catching up with our regional competitors.Re-engineering of Production System data technology has a crucial role in manufacturing sector. Acquiring state of the art machinery is though very much expensive, but a very berried and necessary measure to confront competitive in the immense run. It is the level of trust the exporter builds with its customers by giving them flawless products, made on state of the art machinery. Once this trus t is developed, there is no other way than any unforeseen exception that you may lose a customer to another competitor. Therefore, it is super recommended to produce with great efficiency, minimizing the wastage of the raw material, energy resources and thus reducing the cost of production.Producing high Value ProductsIts better to export yarn than raw cotton. Similarly its better to export finished fabric than to export grey fabric (raw fabric). Furthermore its very much feasible to export readymade garments than to only fabrics. What makes the latter better is the value added and subsequent increase in per unit price. Therefore, the textile industry should focus on the finished products so as to create more value in their products and reap larger margin of profits. The industry should also diversify into other areas such as technical textiles and nonwovens in order decrease its dependence on conventional and commodity textiles, which is highly sensitive to per unit price and volu me for the profit margin.Image Building of Pakistan to Attract FDISecurity measures should be taken to palliate the buyers and investors to visit Pakistan for investments. Secure business environment must be needed to attract golden sparrows to facilitate business dealings and building positive visualise of Pakistan that they can rely upon.Reducing the Cost of BusinessChina and India are much cheaper in labor, raw material and utilities as compared with Pakistan. Rising inflation also increase the cost of production. We have to control these unnecessary costs if we have to survive in the middle of the two giants of the textile sector in the world.Threats vernal competitorsPakistan is facing new competitors in textile sector such asBangladeshVietnamTurkeyThough we cannot avoid competition but we can always stay ahead of them by reforming our strategies and educating our entrepreneurs so as to move one step forward in every aspect.Phasing out of quota SystemAs the quota system is go vern out by WTO, there is a threat by the Chinese and Indian manufacturers to gain most of the market share. We have high costs, low labor productivity and inefficient production processes. direction life CycleFashion changes rapidly now a day. Media has so much penetrated in our daily lives that we good adapt our-selves as it wants us to. This has resulted in shortening the fashion lifecycle thus increasing the fashion risk. Now the buyer does not want to wait long for his consignment because he is insecure that by the time it will reach to him he will lost its demand due to change in fashion. Therefore, they select to buy from neighboring countries even at higher cost to get their products instantly rather than to wait weeks or months for their consignments to reach them.SWOT Analysis (Summary)StrengthsRaw material BaseLaborRich HeritageDomestic MarketWeaknessesResearch DevelopmentMore Dependence on CottonLabor ProductivityPoor InfrastructurePoor Quality StandardsUnstable Polit ical SituationSystem Orientation And Supply ChainOpportunitiesPakistan Textile CityMarketingCollaboration with Foreign CompaniesRe-engineering of Production SystemProducing high Value ProductsImage Building of Pakistan to Attract FDIReducing the Cost of BusinessThreatsNew competitorsPhasing out of quota SystemFashion life CyclePEST AnalysisPolitical OutfitTextile industry, and all other business in the field are subjected to very high risk due to unstable political outfit, this restricts joint ventures in the industry. We only have only one example of joint Venture in the industry that is Lucky Tex SITE with J. Rosenthals and Sons of England. As the political outfit is extremely unstable and does not guarantee any consistency over the span of time, therefore attracting foreign investment in the sector is very limited, and only confined to term financing, or credits.Economical Analysis and PerformanceTill not so long ago, the Pakistan textile industry was one of the key drivers of gr owth and employment generation.The plight of the textile exports continued during the first four months (July-October) of current financial as they fell by around one percent during the period.The export of textile products came to $3.539 billion in the period under review, which is 2008 against $3.573 billion in the corresponding period of former year.At a time when growth in export is badly needed to plug the widening trade deficit, the dismal performance of the largest export earning textile sector is causing serious problems for the state in its efforts for registering quantum jump in export earnings.Complaining about the high cost of production of textile products due to expensive raw materials and high rates of utilizes the textile associations are clamoring for incentives in the shape of RD support to enable them to compete in the international market.The dissolution shows that almost all the categories in textile group performed dismally during the period under review. (Pa kistan Textile Journal, October2008)(Microeconomics of competitiveness, Textiles cluster in Pakistan, 2007)Social Liabilities and Duties160 million population growing 3%Growing trend of urbanizationViable middle classIncreasing literacy among femalesPer capita income growing 14% = $ 652GDP growth = 2%Retail whole sale trade is 18.4 % of GDPStock exchange crossed 8000 pointsmillion of expatriate workersTechnological Requirements and up gradationPakistan textile industry is blessed with state of the art machinery, and local entrepreneurs remain well updated in this scenario. Thou, there is no or limited government support in up gradation programs at the moment, but previously from 2003 to 2005 this sector has enjoyed multiple benefits on import of technology and machinery in terms of GOPs program for BMR, so that industry could be geared up to meet challenges of WTO, once the quota regime was over.PORTER Five Forces ModelOne of the worst hit sectors during the skyrocketing intere st rate scenario in the late 90s and early 2000s, the debt-laden Pakistan textile industry has spun many turn-around stories since then. Aided by lower interest rates, restructuring packages from financial institutions and the recent dismantle of quotas the sector is today well poised to capture growth opportunities. In 2008, the sector contributed 20% to industrial production, 9% to excise collections, 18% of employment in industrial sector, nearly 20% to the countrys total export earnings and 4% to the GDP. The textile sector employs nearly 35 m people and is the second highest employer in the country. Infect, it is estimated that one out of every six households in the country directly or indirectly depend on this sector. Here we analyze the sectors dynamics through Porters five-factor model.(Thompson, Strickland III,Strategic Management, Concepts and Cases. 15th Edition)Bargaining power of customers (demand scenario)FactorsHUFAMUFANeutralMFAHFA12345Number of Important buyersFewXM anyThreat of Backward integrationHighX small-scaleProduct suppliedComodityXSpecialitySwitching costLowXHigh% of buyers costHighXLowProfit Earned by BuyerHighXLowTotal1524045Score2.50Global textile clothing industry is currently pegged at around US$ 440 bn. US and European markets dominate the global textile trade accounting for 64% of clothing and 39% of textile market. With the dismantling of quotas, global textile trade is expected to grow (as per Mc Kinsey estimates) to US$ 650 bn by 2010 (5 year CAGR of 10%). Although China is likely to kick the bucket the supplier of choice, other low cost producers like Pakistan would also benefit as the overseas importers would try to mitigate their risk of sourcing from only one country. The two-fold increase in global textile trade is also likely to drive Pakistans exports growth. Pakistans textile export (at US$ 15 bn in 2005) is expected to grow to US$ 40 bn, capturing a market share of close to 8% by 2010. Pakistan, in particular, is l ikely to benefit from the rising demand in the home textiles and apparels

Gender Divisions and Differences in Work

Gender Divisions and Differences in WorkToday, wo hands give gained a new sufficientity with custody. This perspective is indisputableThis review explores the contemporary literature on the theme of wowork force and field of study in the come of the suggestion that women shake up indisputably gained a new equality with men. Overwhelming march has been name for the persistence of trip outual practice inequalities which work to disadvantage women in the linguistic context of work, including municipal work, although it is drop off that providing explanations for this phenomenon has sh stimulate that the issue is complex and highly contested. It is argued that a redefinition and re-interpretation of the inter-dependence in the midst of nonrecreational and rent-free work, c ar and leisure is needed.There seems no doubt that in order for in that location to be a greater measure of real gender equality, antheral identity, in particular, must beer-examined and transplantd . It seems pass on that explore and policy ar focusing to a greater extent on the ways in which fondness, in particular, is perceived and constructed in gender terms. However, in order to effect real change in gender equality, it is argued that thither must be recognition of the myriad of ways in which both masculinities and femininities ar constructed and interact with each other in this complex field.Chapter One IntroductionThe focus of this literature review is upon the theme of women and work deep down the context of the premise that women harbour gained an indisputable equality with men. Whilst it seems, in theory, to a greater extent equitable, to have included commentary and research in equal amounts from men and women, an exploration of the literature revealed a far greater contribution to the debate from women than from men, perhaps by virtue of womens perception of their own disadvantaged position, and this bias is thence reflected in the variety of sources cited.Li terature search was conducted within a University library database, using the search criteria women and work and gender equality and work and this yielded access to a selection of books and articles. The sources selected for inclusion in the review were restricted to those which specific every(prenominal)y focus upon gender differences and inequalities in the realm of work, defined in its widest sense to include that undertaken within the household as well as work in the formal ram market. Due to the plethora of writing and research in this field, the decision was make to restrict sources to those produced within the last ten years, thus maintaining a contemporary focus, although references argon made to earlier works.Chapter topics reflect the themes which emerged from the literature. Chapter Two presents a historical overview of womens employment and the major political orientation by which it has been underpinned in British federation together with the ways in which the con trasting patterns of employment between men and women have served to disadvantage women, particularly in economic terms. Chapter Three explores women as employees in more depth, particularly the ways in which organisations, occupations and playing argonas of work atomic number 18 profoundly gendered and how this, again, seems to work against women, although it will be shown that this is a contested area.The focus in Chapter cardinal is upon internal labour and the ways in which its traditional construction as womens work has been strongly contested. The different ways in which work is itself construed, in both the traditional world of work and the private domain, sets the scene for a change of emphasis. The literature reflects a movement, in Chapter Five, from a concentration upon the inequalities and unjustnesss heaped upon women through patricentric structures towards a redefinition of the key issues through an exploration of the increasingly blurred distinctions between no nrecreational work, un give domestic work, care and leisure.A reinterpretation of caring and how this may be incorporated into the discourse on gender and work has been highlighted. It is argued that there is a clear need for more serious ac seem to be taken of the lived experiences of both men and women, to celebrate, rather than denigrate, gender differences and to strive to understand the ways in which much(prenominal) differences are constructed in ways which may disadvantage both men and women.Chapter Two The nature and extent of womens employmentMany commentators have tell the different ways in which women and men have organized their lives together and how the work that each undertakes has changed and developed over time (Crompton, 1997 as marriageet,1997). Crompton (1997) describes how the gender voice of labour originated from, and was profoundly reshaped by, the advent of industrialisation in Britain.By the turn of the 20th century, men became increasingly associated with paid or market work, whilst women were identified with the household and non-market work. This cut back became intimately connected with an ideology of womanhood which effectively served to exclude women from market work. As Crompton asserts, the male-breadwinner model emerged from the ideology of separate spheres in which the home and domestic sphere was defined as belonging to women, whilst that of the extraneous world including the workplace was defined as that of men (1997, p.8).There seems little doubt, as will become clear later in this review, that assuming the main obligation for household tasks and child-rearing has had a significant impact upon womens federation in market work.The idea that this responsibility is somehow natural can be said to underpin many family-related explanations for womens behaviour in the labour market, however, this is clearly a contentious issue. Those who congest the view that the gender division of labour manifested in todays society is rooted in biological differences between the sexes include Hakim (1995 1996) and mug (1998).Hakim (1995), for example, sets out to explain the particular patterns of womens employment in Britain and how they are distinct from those of men. She draws on findings from the socio-biological field which cite male traits of aggressiveness, dominance and scrap as rooted in hormonal differences between men and women. These natural masculine traits are seen as instrumental in the disproportionate participation and advantage of men in the employment sphere.In similar vein, Browne (1998) argues, that biologic in ally influenced sex differences in behaviour have serious ramifications for the occupational choices made by men and women in the working sphere and their differential employment patterns.Whilst clearly decrying outright sexual discrimination, Browne suggests that much of the glass ceiling and gender ranch is the crossway of basic biological sex differences in personality and temperament acting in the context of the modern labour market and that these differences are the product of differential reproductive strategies followed by the two sexes during the course of human evolution (1998, p.5). Browne argues that instead of denying the reality of these natural sex differences in the pursuit of socially constructed explanations for the gender spreading, it will be more productive for feminists, in particular, to embrace them and incorporate them into future discourse about work.Hakim (1995 1996) is also little of feminist commentators on womens employment, such(prenominal) as Wallaby (1990), who have suggested that occupational segregation, the construction of womens jobs as separate from mens jobs, has been a mechanism through which women have been systematically denied access to jobs by men.Hartmann (1982), as cited by Crompton (1997), described the rationale behind occupational segregation by sex as the mechanism through which mens superiority over wo men is maintained by enforcing lower wages for women in the labour market in order ensure their dependence on men. Hartmann (1982) asserts that men benefit from both higher wages and the domestic division of labour and thus, the latter, in turn, serves to perpetuate womens inferior position in the labour market (Crompton,1997, p.11). Hakim argues against this analysis, however, suggesting that the different pattern of womens labour-force participation and work commitment is due to womens choices jibe to their tastes and preferences. Hence, some women choose to give more priority to their domestic function and child-rearing and slight to their employment careers, though, for example, working part-time rather than full-time or opting for less(prenominal) demanding occupations (Hakim, 1996).Hat (1997) discusses the issue of gender and work from an economic perspective and points out that the labour resources of an economy include women and men engaging in productive application in both the labour market and the household. The working population, however, is term close to often used, particularly by economists, to describe those women and men who are engaged in paid employment, self-employment, in Forces, on work-related training schemes or registered as unemployed.This effectively excludes all those women or men in the unpaid sector and full-time housewifes. Hat (1997) records that in1993, in the 16 to 64 age group, 71% of all men and 53% of all women were participating in the working population. The commensurate Opportunities Commission reveal that in the same age group in 2004, over 83% of men and 70% of women were economically active (EOC, 2005, p.8). Although caution is needed in comparisons between different sets of statistics, it seems clear that a larger proportion of men than of women participate in the working population but the gap would seem to be closing.It is notable, however, that patterns of labour force participation by women and men are bo th distinct and different. Hat (1997) notes that, in 1993, for prime age male workers aged 24 to 49, participation rates were over 90%, declining after the age of 50. For women in 1993, the participation rate was 71% for the age range 24 to 34, falling to 54%for women with a child under 5 years old, increasing again as children enter school.Similarly, in 2004, 52% of mothers with children under 5years old were in employment, of these women, around 66% were working part-time. Crompton (1997) observes that almost all of the increase in womens employment in Britain from the 1950s until the 1980s was impart-time work. This trend is further underlined in the latest statistics in that nearly half of all women (44%) and about 10% of all men work part-time (EOC, 2005).As the statistics show, clearly women are more likely than men to work on a part-time basis. Writers seem divided as to explanations for this phenomenon. Wallaby (1990), for example, has suggested that the expansion of part ti me employment represents a kind of capitalist, patriarchal conspiracy in which mainly male employers have secured womens cheap and docile labour, whilst at the same time freeing women to continue undertaking domestic labour in the home. Crompton(1997), also, notes that part-time work.has a reputation of being insecure, low-paid and with little by way of training or promotion prospects (p.33). She cites Beeches and Perkins (1987) who suggest that trustworthy jobs were actually constructed as part-time jobs because they were seen as womens jobs, invariably low graded and rarely defined as skilled (Crompton, 1997, p.33).Other writers, such as Hakim (1996), deny the assertion that employers have sought to construct poor work for women, asserting instead that it is women themselves who have demanded part-time work to fit in with their other domestic responsibilities employers have simply responded to meet this demand (Hakim, 1996). Evidence from research by Rubbery et al(1994), however , suggests that not further is part-time work less flexible than full-time work and of inferior quality, but also it has been developed largely to suit the needs of the employer. Since most part-time workers are women, it is women who are most affected by the disadvantages associated with this mode of work.Chapter Three Women as employeesHat (1997) traces the changes in the working population and employment patterns of men and women in recent decades, pointing out that whilst there has been a decline in male employment since 1980, feminine employment since that time has increased. She cites the official census data from 1994 which revealed that this latter increase was due to a greater proportion of mothers entering paid employment (Hatt,1997). It has been well- enter that within the labour market, women play a different role from men. As we have seen, women are more likely than men to work part-time and, as Hat observes, they also work in different industries from men, occupy dif ferent positions even within blend industries and are under-represented in senior positions(1997, p.17).Many commentators have noted that women are concentrated in certain industries and occupations, such as clerical work, catering, cleaning and caring work whereas men are more often found in the manufacturing sector and the construction industry, for example (Hat, 1997 Franks,1999 Moe, 2003). Even when women and men are found in the same sector, men tend to occupy the more senior positions with women more often situated in the lower ranks of the hierarchy (Hat, 1997 Franks,1999).As Hat (1997) records, women are under-represented at senior-levels throughout all occupational categories (p.21). Crompton(1997) examines the banking industry, in some detail, as an example of the response to labour market demands for low-level clerical workers. She describes how this industry, along with others such as insurance and local government, helped to generate a mass, feminized clerical labour f orce (Crompton, 1997, p.107).Both direct and indirect discriminatory practices against women within particular banks came to light and pressure from the Equal Opportunities Commission forced some important policy changes. Crompton (1997) acknowledges that there have been major changes to employment practices in the financial sector in general, in later years, as far as gender equality is concerned.She cites structural factors, such as the demand for labour and the organization of the labour cognitive process alongside male exclusionary practices as the main contributors to the unequal position of female employees within the banking sector. She also concedes, however, that despite recent reforms, women continue to far outweigh men in occupying low-level positions in banking.It is useful, at this point, to identify the key pieces of government legislation in the UK which have been designed to directly address the issue of equal opportunities between women and men. The first is these Discrimination good turn 1975 which promoted the basic principle that men and women should not be less favourably treated by virtue of their sexier marital status.The other is the Equal Pay serve 1975 designed to outlaw discrimination between women and men in the same employment, in pay and other conditions regarding their contracts of employment. This Act was later amended in 1984 to incorporate the Equal Pay for Equal Value principle. In addition to these Acts, the UK is also bound by Article 119 of the conformity of Rome to uphold European Community equal treatment and equal pay directives (Griffin, 2002).The Equal Opportunities Commission, set up through the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975, functions as the expert organisation on equality between women and men, its main tasks being to work towards the elimination of discrimination to promote equality of opportunity and to harbour under review the effectiveness of the Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Acts (Griffin, 2002, p.11) .In the area of what has become known as the gender pay gap, it seems that, in general, the gap between male and female earnings has narrowed over the past 60 years, but the trend has been inconsistent. For example, female managers and administrators earned 55% of the annual earnings of their male counterparts on 1970, compared to only 33% in the mid 1920s (EOC,1999). However, this discrepancy narrowed by only 1% in this field of work between the mid 1950s and 1970. Since 1970, although this gap has narrowed importantly with women earning 63% of the pay of their male counterparts, compared to 81% for 1998, it was noted that in all ethnic groups, men have higher average hourly earnings than women(EOC, 1999, p.5).This statistical evidence for the steady narrowing of the gender pay gap appears supporting in terms of the equality agenda. However, as Griffin (2002) observes, there are other relevant issues. She records that, when we look at all sources of income, including earnings from employment and self-employment, occupational pensions, investment and benefit income, womens income is significantly lower than that of men, apart from state benefits.For example, figures taken from the EOC forth year 1996-7 showed that 45% of women had an income of less than100 a calendar week as compared with 20% of men (Griffin, 2002). More latterly, the EOC has recorded that the gender gap in terms of income has remained quite high, stating that the gender gap between women and mens mean individual incomes in 2002/3 was 46% (EOC, 2005).The EOC (2001) records that despite improvements in recent years, stereotyping cadaver evident in many professional occupations. Notwithstanding the evidence that greater numbers of women are entering certain professions, such as higher education or the law, womens share of higher level jobs remains generally low. Certain professional and technical occupations, the occupational segregation noted earlier, apparently continue to be heavily dominat ed by either men or women(EOC, 2001). Empirical studies, peculiarly within the feminist perspective over the past two decades, have moved away from the study of organizational structures per se in order to seek explanations for this persistence in the positioning of men and women in the workplace.Writers such as Pringle (1988), Chodorow (1989) and Halford and Savage(1995), for example, have instead demonstrated how specific kinds of masculinities and femininities, and discourses of gender, are constructed within the workplace. The emphasis here is upon recognizing the diversity of discourses on what it is to be a male or female employee and, ultimately, to avoid over-generalising about all men or all women. One example of this is illustrated by Crompton(1997) in her exposition of different masculinities in the banking industry.She charts the movement within managerial positions in banking from a need for solid, paternalistic men towards the requirement for a more competitive, asser tive masculinity within selling culture. Crompton (1997), however, argues that although these discursive, post-modern insights do much to enhance our understanding of the pattern of womens employment, and the different ways in which gender is constructed in the workplace, structural or material explanations remain important.Nazarko (2004) offers a contemporary analysis of the barriers faced by women in the workplace. She maintains that the fight off for equal opportunities has hitherto failed to challenge the premise that certain groups of workers such as women are less productive and less attractive to employers (p.25) or the assumption that elder workers, including women, are less valuable. Nazarko highlights the popularity of organisational initiatives which promote diversity and difference in the field of human resources.Wilson and Iles (1999), for example, have argued that diversity counseling improves recruitment, retention and creativity within organisations (Nazarko, 2004 , p.25). Nazarkocites researchers such as Rosner (1995) who have pointed out that women and men have different styles of working and managing. Women, for example, tend to use interactional styles in management, encouraging participation, sharing former and learning and energising others. In contrast, men tend to use transactional styles, seeing pieces of works series of transactions.Both styles are seen as equally valid and also, may be the preferred model for any individual, regardless of gender. It is argued, then, that both organisations and employees will benefit from initiatives which value diversity and difference, since people would be evaluated and treated as individuals, rather than unsocial groups and associated stereotypical connotations. Nazarko(2004), however, fears that the diversity approach does not necessarily eliminate the power structures which persist in society. She argues that until female dominated professions such as nursing are valued as much as male domi nated professions like the police force, it is difficult to see how gender equality can be attained.Chapter Four Domestic labour womens work?It is well-documented that the Industrial Revolution within the western world generated a distinction between paid work outside the home and unpaid domestic labour within the household. Mens economic occupation came to be center upon paid work, hence the male breadwinner model, whilst women have commonly divided their working lives between the unpaid domestic sphere and activity in the labour market. Hat(1997) represents the feminist approach to this issue by highlighting the way in which women have long been disadvantaged, particularly in economic terms, by their traditional domestic responsibilities. Not only does their focus upon unpaid domestic task constrain their participation in paid work, domestic work itself is an unpaid economic activity which has for too long passed unnoticed the skills, which the successful homemaker acquires, g o unrecognized in wage and promotion schemes (Hat, 1997, p.50).The terms upon which both men and women are able to participate within the labour market are very different and in this respect, it would seem difficult to argue for a level of equality between the sexes. Many commentators have noted, household and child-rearing duties weigh more heavily upon women than men and have traditionally been excluded from economic analyses of participation in work in the widest sense(Crompton, 1997 Hat, 1997 Franks, 1999). As Hat observes household responsibilities and paid employment are both valid productive activities but they are not equally rewarded by society(1997, p. 49).DE et al (1995), in their analysis of the British Household plug-in Survey in the mid 1990s, point out that very few men cited household or family responsibilities as affecting their labour market behaviour, whereas over 80% of women surveyed felt that their labour market participation had been adversely affected by the se duties. As Franks(1999) points out, work has come to be synonymous with having a paid job and its counterpart is regarded as leisure.Thus, other kinds of activity such as cleaning the house, doing the shopping, cooking and caring for children and elderly relatives do not officially count as work, although for those twisty, it may actually feel very much like work. Underpinning the traditional sexual division of labour is the idea that mens paid work is dependent upon a shadow economy of womens unpaid work (Franks, 1999).Thus, the increased participation of women in the formal paid workforce throws the blot onto the status of what had always essentially been regarded as a labour of love. Franks (1999) presents the example of widowed fathers who do not receive the lump sums, tax allowances and act state benefits received by widowed mothers. A missing fathers financial contributions recognised, whereas a widowers deceased partner is considered to have had no economic value. One s olution offered by some economists has been to officially regard this labour as a form of taxation whereby all of society benefits from it as if they were paying directly to the state (Franks, 1999).Other commentators (Charles and Kerr, 1999) Morris, 1999) have also stressed that despite the contemporary rhetoric of equality between the sexes, the traditional ideology which divides men and women into breadwinner and homemaker is still very much alive. Charles andKerr (1999), for example, point out that even where there may have been certain egalitarian sharing of domestic tasks within couples initially, once children arrive on the scene it is almost always the case that the woman takes on the responsibility for child-care and household tasks whilst the man takes on the role of breadwinner.It is argued that although, ostensibly, this arrangement may appear to be complementary relationship with roles being different but equal, there is a differential allocation of power which renders women disadvantaged. On giving up paid work outside the home, or taking on lower-paid, low-status part-time work, women relinquish their power and status, at least economically (Charles and Kerr, 1999). Having responsibility for decisions about food purchase, or other household necessities, cooking and childcare, it is argued, effectively constitutes the exercise of power by women in other peoples interests. As Charles and Kerr suggest, most of them (women) carryout these tasks within a set of social relations which denies them power, particularly when they are at home all day with young children and are dependent for financial support on a man (1999, p.192).There is a large body of contemporary opinion, evident in the literature, which calls for a discipline of balance between the fundamental economic inequity between men and women, particularly within the family unit which includes dependent children. Franks(1999), for example, suggests that there will never be genuine equality b etween men and women if male identity remains unaltered and unpaid work continues to be shuffled off onto women (p.4). Franks goes on to assert that in a market system where unpaid work is invisible, there is no incentive for men to change their identity to encompass low-status, financially worthless activity (1999, p.4).Crompton (1997) presented her own analysis of the relationship between employment and the family with particular reference to the extent to which there has been any change in the domestic division of labour. She acknowledges that there has been some change, albeit very slow, and she cites research byGershuny et al (1994) who describe the process as one of lagged adaptation in which changes tend to occur most often when women are engaged in full-time employment. Other researchers have found that although men, mainly middle-class men, have expressed a desire to become more involved in domestic and child care arrangements, there is little evidence that equal parenting is the reality (Lupton and Barclay, 1997).A more recent briefing by the Equal Opportunities Commission observes that there are many ways in which education, the family and access tithe labour market interact to produce different opportunities for women and men and which resolve in both men and women experiencing discrimination by virtue of gender. In relation to women in particular, this briefing comments that womens work should beer-evaluated, so that it is no longer undervalued and poorly paid(EOC, 2002, p.1). Hat, in her analysis of gender, work and labour markets, concluded that the domestic division of labour would certainly seem to lead to social injustice and it is debatable whether it furthers the efficient operation of the economy (1997, p.50).Vogel and chum salmon (1999) present an interesting exposition of the connections between silver and power and men and women within households. Their own research found that, in general, the partner with the greater income was lik ely to be more dominant indecision-making, with women partners in paid employment having greater power than those who work only in the home. There appear to have been few large-scale studies which have focused upon the experiences of social equality, or inequality, between individual members of the same household.The research conducted by Vogel and Pal (1999) draws on typology, constructed by Pal (1989), of household financial allocation systems, constituting the female whole-wage system, the housekeeping allowance system, the pooling system and the independent management system. In the female whole-wage system, women were given their husbands pay packet, and had sole responsibility for managing the whole household budget. In the housekeeping allowance system, the women were given a fixed sum for housekeeping expenses, the men having prime responsibility for other expenditure.The pooling system was used where partners pooled their earnings and shared access to and responsibility for managing expenditure from the common, joint fund. Finally, the independent management system operated where both partners had independent incomes (usually dual-earner couples), each partner taking responsibility for particular items of expenditure, although this may vary over time.Vogel and Pal (1999) conducted a survey, combined with interviews, of1,211 couples crosswise six British urban areas, covering Swindon, Aberdeen, Northampton, Coventry, Rochdale and Kirkcaldy. Respondents, aged between 20 and 60 years, were questioned on the household financial allocation system which came closest to their own mode of household finance management. By far the most common system used waste pool which was adopted by half of all the couples surveyed, with the remaining half choosing one of the other segregated systems (Voglerand Pal, 1999).The data was further analysed to determine the relationship between strategic financial control and access to money as a resource within the households stu died. It was found that in the joint pooling households joint management was associated with both equal strategic control over finances and also with equal access to money as a resource (Vogel and Pal, 1999, p.143). In the female-controlled management systems, constituting just over two-fifths of the sample, a disjunction was found between control over finances and access to money as a resource.The researchers highlighted their finding that even where ostensibly, these women had greater financial control and power in decision-making, significantly higher levels of personal deprivation were experienced by the women with the men more likely to have more personal spending money than their female partners, especially in lower-income families.As Vogel and Pal observe, where the opportunities for exercising financial power are heavily circumscribed by low income and by the husbands outlook of personal spending money, responsibility may be a more appropriate term than control (1999, p.144 ). This more detailed analysis presented by Vogel and Pal (1999), together with that of other researchers, such as Morris (1999), provides evidence for the ways in which patterns of gender and class inequalities tend to interlock to increase the differences between women and men.A different perspective upon the issue of gender differences and gender equality in the arena of household work and parenting is provided bother researchers. Doucette (1995), for example, highlights the tendency for debates on this issue to become focused upon the relationship between womens greater responsibility for household work and caring role, and their relative inequality to men in employment and public life. She argues that whilst this is an important issue, insufficient account has been taken of the various configurations that gender differences may take within household life (Doucette, 1995, p.271).Doucette suggests that much of the literature on the gender division of household labour is situated within an equality or equal rights framework, which itself, tends to be constructed through a masculine perspective. For example, she argues that a male model of stripped participation in housework and child care is pitched in relation to a male model of full-time employment (Doucette, 1995, p. 274).Whilst it is clearly documented that womens employment is compromised through the need for women, as a

Synopsys For Physical Design Of Asic Computer Science Essay

Synopsys For visible Design Of Asic Computer Science EssayIC compiler is the softw ar package from Synopsys for strong-arm Design of ASIC. It admits necessary brutes to complete the back end soma of the very deep submicron jut outs. The inputs to the IC compiler are a gate-level netlist which mint be from DC compiling program or third-party assholes, a detailed floor computer programme which pot be from previous Design visualizening through IC compiler or other third-party tools, measure constraints and other constraints, physical and quantify libraries provided by manufacturer, and foundry-process entropy. IC compiling program knuckle unders a GDSII-format file as output ready for tape out of the chip. In addition, it is likely to export a Design Exchange Format (DEF) file of come ind netlist data ready for a third-party router. IC Compiler visualises a binary Synopsys Milkyway database, which bed be apply by other Synopsys tools based on Milkyway. 164.2 User I nterfacesIC Compiler chamberpot be uptaked either with Shell porthole (icc_shell) or with Graphical personar interface (graphical user interface). Shell interface is the influence-line interface, which is apply for batch mode, scripts, ty legg bids, and push-button type of operations. Graphical user interface (GUI) is an advanced vivid analysis and physical editing tool. Certain tasks, such as very accurately displaying the design and providing visual analysis tools, send packing only effected from the GUI. Also tool command language (Tcl), which is used in many applications in the EDA industry, is available to IC Compiler. Using Tcl, you drop economise reusable procedures and scripts.The IC Compiler design flow is an easy-to-use, single-pass flow that provides convergent timing closure. Figure 4.1 shows the prefatorial IC Compiler design flow, which is centered around three onus commands that accomplish spot and optimization (place_opt), clock head deductive basi sing and optimization (clock_opt), and routing and postroute optimization (route_opt). 16icc1Figure 4.1 IC Compiler Design Flow 21For most designs, if the place_opt, clock_opt, and route_opt steps are followed, IC Compiler will provide optimum results. You can use IC Compiler to efficiently perform chip-level design be after, place, clock tree synthesis and routing on designs with moderate timing and congestion challenges.To further improve the quality of results for your design you can use additional commands and switches for placement, clock tree synthesis, and routing steps that IC Compiler provides.IC Compiler design flow involves execution of following steps1. focalize up and prepare the libraries and the design data.2. Perform design planning and prop 1nt planning.-Design planning is to perform necessary steps to create a floorplan, determine the size of the design, create the boundary and core area, create site rows for the placement of cadence prison cells, set up the I/O pads.- cause planning, is to perform necessary steps to create a advocator plan to meet the reason budget and the taper passing water current.3. Perform placement and optimization.IC Compiler placement and optimization uses enhanced placement and synthesis technologies to generate a legalized placement for leaf cells and an optimized design, which addresses and resolves timing closure issues for the provided design. You can supplement this functionality by optimizing for power, recovering area for placement, minimizing congestion, and minimizing timing and design rule violations.To perform placement and optimization, use the place_opt core command (or from GUI choose Placement menu and then Core Placement and Optimization sub-menu).4. Perform clock tree synthesis and optimization.To perform the clock tree synthesis and optimization phase, use the command clock_opt (orchoose measure Core Clock Tree Synthesis and Optimization in the GUI).IC Compiler clock tree synthesis and embedded optimization solve complicated clock tree synthesis problems, such as blockage avoidance and the correlational statistics between preroute and postroute data. Clock tree optimization improves both clock skew and clock insertion delay by performing buffer sizing, buffer relocation, gate sizing, gate relocation, level adjustment, reconfiguration, delay insertion, dummy load insertion, and balancing of interclock delays.5. Perform routing and postroute optimization.To perform routing and postroute optimization, use the route_opt core command (or choose Route Core Routing and Optimization in the GUI).As part of routing and postroute optimization, IC Compiler performs global routing, track assignment, detail routing, search and repair, topological optimization, and engineering change order (ECO) routing. For most designs, the default routing and postroute optimization setup produces optimal results. If necessary, you can supplement this functionality by optimizing routing pat terns and reducing crosstalk or by customizing therouting and postroute optimization functions for special needs.6. Perform chip finishing and design for manufacturing tasks.IC Compiler provides chip finishing and design for manufacturing and yield capabilities that you can apply throughout the various stages of the design flow to address process design issues encountered during chip manufacturing.7. carry out the design.Save your design in the Milkyway format. This format is the internal database format used by IC Compiler to store all the logical and physical reading about a design. 164.3 How to Invoke the IC Compiler1. Log in to the UNIX environment with the user id and password .2. Start IC Compiler from the UNIX promtUNIX$ icc_shellThe xterm unix prompt turns into the IC Compiler shell command prompt.3. Start the GUI.icc_shell start_guiThis window can display schematics and logical browsers, among other things, once a design is loaded.4.4 Preparing the DesignIC Compiler uses a Milkyway design program depository library to store design and its associated library information. This element threads how to set up the libraries, create a Milkyway design library, read your design, and drop a line the design in Milkyway format.These steps are explained in the following sections Setting Up the Libraries Setting Up the Power and priming Nets Reading the Design Annotating the Physical Data Preparing for Timing Analysis and RC Calculation Saving the Design4.4.1 Setting Up the LibrariesIC Compiler requires both logic libraries and physical libraries. The following sections describe how to set up and validate these libraries. Setting Up the Logic LibrariesIC Compiler uses logic libraries to provide timing and functionality information for all standard cells. In addition, logic libraries can provide timing information for unverbalized macros, such as RAMs.IC Compiler uses variables to define the logic library settings. In individually session, you must define t he values for the following variables (either interactively, in the .synopsys_dc.setup file, or by restoring the values saved in the Milkyway design library) so that IC Compiler can access the libraries search_pathLists the paths where IC Compiler can locate the logic libraries. target_libraryLists the logic libraries that IC Compiler can use to perform physical optimization. link_libraryLists the logic libraries that IC Compiler can search to resolve sources. Setting Up the Physical LibrariesIC Compiler uses Milkyway reference libraries and technology (.tf) files to provide physical library information. The Milkyway reference libraries contain physical information about the standard cells and macro cells in your technology library. In addition, these reference libraries define the placement unit tile. The technology files provide information such as the names and characteristics (physical and electrical) for each metal layer, which are technology-specific.The physical library info rmation is stored in the Milkyway design library. For each cell, the Milkyway design library contains several visual modalitys of the cell, which are used for unalike physical design tasks.If you have not already created a Milkyway library for your design (by using another tool that uses Milkyway), you need to create one by using the IC Compiler tool. If you already have a Milkyway design library, you must open it before running(a) on your design.This section describes how to perform the following tasks Create a Milkyway design libraryTo create a Milkyway design library, use the create_mw_lib command (or choose tear Create Library in the GUI). unclouded a Milkyway design libraryTo open an existing Milkyway design library, use the open_mw_lib command (or choose File Open Library in the GUI). Report on a Milkyway design libraryTo report on the reference libraries attached to the design library, use the -mw_reference_library option.icc_shellreport_mw_lib-mw_reference_library des ign_library_nameTo report on the units used in the design library, use the report_units command.icc_shell report_units Change the physical library informationTo change the technology file, use the set_mw_technology_file command (or chooseFile Set Technology File in the GUI) to restrict the new technology file name and the name of the design library. Save the physical library informationTo save the technology or reference control information in a file for later use, use thewrite_mw_lib_files command (or choose File Export release Library File in the GUI). In a single invocation of the command, you can output only one type of file. To output both a technology file and a reference control file, you must run the command twice. Verifying Library ConsistencyConsistency between the logic library and the physical library is critical to achieving good results. Before you process your design, ensure that your libraries are consistent by running the check_library command. 16icc_shell che ck_library4.4.2 Setting Up the Power and solid ground NetsIC Compiler uses variables to define names for the power and ground nets. In each session, you must define the values for the following variables (either interactively or in the .synopsys_dc.setup file) so that IC Compiler can identify the power and ground nets mw_logic0_netBy default, IC Compiler VSS as the ground net name. If you are using a different name,you must specify the name by setting the mw_logic0_net variable. mw_logic1_netBy default, IC Compiler uses VDD as the power net name. If you are using a different name, you must specify the name by setting the mw_logic1_net variable.4.4.3 Reading the DesignIC Compiler can read designs in either Milkyway or ASCII (Verilog, DEF, and SDC files) format. Reading a Design in Milkyway Format Reading a Design in ASCII Format4.4.4 Annotating the Physical DataIC Compiler provides several methods of annotating physical data on the design Reading the physical data from a DEF fileTo read a DEF file, use the read_def command (or choose File Import Read DEF inthe GUI).icc_shell read_def -allow_physical design_name.def Reading the physical data from a floorplan fileA floorplan file is a file that you previously created by using the write_floorplancommand (or by choosing Floorplan Write Floorplan in the GUI).icc_shell read_floorplan floorplan_file_name Copying the physical data from another designTo copy physical data from the layout (CEL) view of one design in the current Milkyway design library to another, use the copy_floorplan command (or choose Floorplan Copy Floorplan in the GUI). 16icc_shell copy_floorplan -from design14.4.5 Preparing for Timing Analysis and RC CalculationIC Compiler provides RC calculation technology and timing analysis capabilities for bothpreroute and postroute data. Before you perform RC calculation and timing analysis, youmust complete the following tasks Set up the TLUPlus filesYou specify these files by using the set_tlu_plus_fil es command (or by choosing File Set TLU+ in the GUI).icc_shell set_tlu_plus_files -tech2itf_ represent ./path/map_file_name.map -max_tluplus ./path/worst_settings.tlup -min_tluplus ./path/best_settings.tlup (Optional) Back-annotate delay or parasitic dataTo back-annotate the design with delay information provided in a Standard Delay Format (SDF) file, use the read_sdf command (or choose File Import Read SDF in the GUI).To remove annotated data from design, use the remove_annotations command. Set the timing constraintsAt a minimum, the timing constraints must contain a clock definition for each clock repoint, as well as input and output arrival times for each I/O port. This requirement ensures that all signal paths are confine for timing.To read a timing constraints file, use the read_sdc command (or choose File Import Read SDC in the GUI).icc_shell read_sdc -version 1.7 design_name.sdc Specify the analysis modeSemiconductor turn of events parameters can vary with conditions su ch as fabrication process,operating temperature, and power supply voltage. The set_operating_conditions command specifies the operating conditions for analysis. (Optional) Set the derating factorsIf your timing library does not involve minimum and maximum timing data, you can perform simultaneous minimum and maximum timing analysis by specifying derating factors for your timing library. Use the set_timing_derate command to specify the derating factors. Select the delay calculation algorithmBy default, IC Compiler uses Elmore delay calculation for both preroute and postroute delay calculations. For postroute delay calculations, you can choose to use Arnoldi delay calculation either for clock nets only or for all nets. Elmore delay calculation is faster, but its results do not always correlate with the PrimeTime and PrimeTime SI results. The Arnoldi calculation is best used for designs with smaller geometries and high resistive nets, but it requires more runtime and memory. 164.4.6 S aving the DesignTo save the design in Milkyway format, use the save_mw_cel command (or choose File Save Design in the GUI). 16CHAPTER 5 Design be afterning5.1 IntroductionDesign planning in IC Compiler provides basic floorplanning and prototyping capabilities such as dirty-netlist handling, automatic die size exploration, performing various operations with relentless box modules and cells, fast placement of macros and standard cells, packing macros into arrays, creating and formative plan gatherings, in-place optimization, prototype global routing analysis, hierarchical clock planning, performing pin assignment on soft macros and plan groups, performing timing budgeting, converting the hierarchy, and refining the pin assignment.Power network synthesis and power network analysis functions, applied during the feasibility phase of design planning, provide automatic synthesis of local power structures within voltage areas. Power network analysis validates the power synthesis result s by performing voltage-drop and electromigration analysis. 16Figure 5.1 IC Compiler Design be afterning 215.2 Tasks to be performed during Design Planning Initializing the Floorplan Automating Die Size Exploration use Black Boxes acting an Initial Virtual unconditional Placement Creating and Shaping Plan Groups perform Power Planning execute Prototype Global Routing Performing Hierarchical Clock Planning Performing In-Place Optimization Performing Routing-Based Pin Assignment Performing RC Extraction Performing Timing Analysis Performing Timing Budgeting Committing the Physical Hierarchy Refining the Pin Assignment5.3 Initializing the FloorplanThe steps in initializing the floorplan are depict below. Reading the I/O ConstraintsTo load the top-level I/O pad and pin constraints, use the read_io_constraints command. Defining the Core and Placing the I/O PadsTo define the core and place the I/O pads and pins, use the initialize_floorplan command. Creating Rectilinear-Shaped Blo cksUse the initialize_rectilinear_block command to create a floorplan for rectilinear blocks from a fixed set of L, T, U, or cross-shaped templates. These templates are used to determine the cell boundary and shape of the core. To do this, use initialize_rectilinear_block -shape LTUX. Writing I/O Constraint InformationTo write top-level I/O pad or pin constraints, use the write_io_constraints command.Read the Synopsys Design Constraints (SDC) file (read_sdc command) to ensure that all signal paths are constrained for timing. Adding mobile phone RowsTo add cell rows, use the add_row command. Removing stall RowsTo remove cell rows, use the cut_row command. Saving the Floorplan InformationTo save the floorplan information, use the write_floorplan command.Writing Floorplan Physical Constraints for Design Compiler Topographical TechnologyIC Compiler can now write out the floorplan physical constraints for Design CompilerTopographical Technology (DC-T) in Tcl format. The reason for usin g floorplan physical constraints in the Design Compiler topographical technology mode is to accurately represent the placement area and to improve timing correlation with the post-place-and-route design. The command syntax iswrite_physical_constraints -output output_file_name -port_side 16Figure 5.2 Floor Plan after Initialization 215.4 Automating Die Size ExplorationThis section describes how to use MinChip technology in IC Compiler to automate the processes exploring and identifying the valid die areas to determine smallest routable, diesize for your design while maintaining the relative placement of hard macros, I/O cells, and a power structure that meets voltage drop requirements. The technology is integrated into the Design Planning tool through the estimate_fp_area command. The input is a physically flat Milkyway CEL view.5.5 Handling Black BoxesBlack boxes can be represented in the physical design as either soft or hard macros. A black box macro has a fixed height and width. A black box soft macro sized by area and utilization can be shaped to best fit the floorplan.To handle the black boxes run the following set of commands.set_fp_base_gateestimate_fp_black_boxesflatten_fp_black_boxescreate_fp_placementplace_fp_pinscreate_qtm_model qtm_bbset_qtm_technology -lib library_namecreate_qtm_port -type clock $portreport_qtm_modelwrite_qtm_model -format qtm_bbreport_timing qtm_bb5.6 Performing an Initial Virtual Flat PlacementThe initial virtual flat placement is very fast and is optimized for wire length, congestion, and timing.The way to perform an initial virtual flat placement is expound below. Evaluating Initial Hard big PlacementNo straightforward criteria exist for evaluating the initial hard macro placement. Measuring the quality of results (QoR) of the hard macro placement can be very subjective and often depends on practical design experience. Specifying Hard Macro Placement ConstraintsDifferent methods can be use to control the preplacement of har d macros and improve the QoR of the hard macro placement.Creating a User-Defined Array of Hard MacrosSetting Floorplan Placement Constraints On Macro CellsPlacing a Macro Cell Relative to an Anchor ObjectUsing a Virtual Flat Placement StrategyEnhancing the Behavior of Virtual Flat Placement With the macros_on_edge SwitchCreating Macro Blockages for Hard MacrosPadding the Hard Macros Padding the Hard MacrosTo avoid placing standard cells too close to macros, which can cause congestion or DRC violations, one can set a user-defined hyperbolise distance or keepout margin around the macros. One can set this padding distance on a selected macros cell instance master.During virtual flat placement no other cells will be placed within the specified distance from the macros edges. 16To set a padding distance (keepout margin) on a selected macros cell instance master, use the set_keepout_margin command. Placing Hard Macros and Standard CellsTo place the hard macros and standard cells simultan eously, use the create_fp_placement command. Performing Floorplan EditingIC Compiler performs the following floorplan editing operations.Creating objectsDeleting objectsUndoing and redoing edit changesMoving objectsChanging the way objects snap to a gridAligning movable objects5.7 Creating and Shaping Plan GroupsThis section describes how to create plan groups for logic modules that need to be physically implemented. Plan groups restrict the placement of cells to a specific region of the core area. This section also describes how to automatically place and shape objects in a design core, add padding around plan group boundaries, and prevent signal leakage and maintain signal integrity by adding modular block shield to plan groups and soft macros.The following steps are covered for Creating and Shaping Plan Groups. Creating Plan GroupsTo create a plan group, create_plan_groups command.To remove (delete) plan groups from the current design, use the remove_plan_groups command. Automat ically Placing and Shaping Objects In a Design CorePlan groups are automatically shaped, sized, and placed inside the core area based on the distribution of cells resulting from the initial virtual flat placement. Blocks (plan groups, voltage areas, and soft macros) mark fix remain fixed the other blocks, whether or not they are inside the core, are subject to being moved or reshaped.To automatically place and shape objects in the design core, shape_fp_blocks command. Adding Padding to Plan GroupsTo prevent congestion or DRC violations, one can add padding around plan groupboundaries. Plan group padding sets placement blockages on the internal and externaledges of the plan group boundary. Internal padding is equivalent to boundary spacing in the core area. External padding is equivalent to macro padding.To add padding to plan groups, create_fp_plan_group_padding command.To remove both external and internal padding for the plan groups, use the remove_fp_plan_group_padding command. A dding Block Shielding to Plan Groups or Soft MacrosWhen two signals are routed parallel to each other, signal leakage can occur between the signals, jumper lead to an unreliable design. One can protect signal integrity by adding modular block shielding to plan groups and soft macros. The shielding consists of metal rectangles that are created around the outside of the soft macro boundary in the top level of the design, and around the inside boundary of the soft macro.To add block shielding for plan groups or soft macros, use the create_fp_block_shielding command.To remove the signal shielding created by modular block shielding, use the remove_fp_block_shielding command. 165.8 Performing Power PlanningAfter completed the design planning process and have a complete floorplan, one can perform power planning, as explained below. Creating Logical Power and Ground ConnectionsTo define power and ground connections, use the connect_pg_nets command. Adding Power and Ground RingsIt is necess ary to add power and ground rings after doing floorplanning.To add power and ground rings, use the create_rectangular_rings command. Adding Power and Ground StrapsTo add power and ground straps, use the create_power_straps command. Prerouting Standard CellsTo preroute standard cells, use the preroute_standard_cells command. Performing Low-Power Planning for Multithreshold-CMOS DesignsOne can perform floorplanning for low-power designs by employing power gating. Power gating has the potential to overcome overall power consumption substantially because it reduces leakage power as well as switching power. Performing Power Network SynthesisAs the design process moves toward creating 65-nm transistors, issues related to power and signal integrity, such as power grid generation, voltage (IR) drop, and electromigration, have become more significant and complex. In addition, this complex technology lengthens the turnaround time needed to identify and fix power and signal integrity problems .By performing power network synthesis one can preview an early power plan that reduces the chances of encountering electromigration and voltage drop problems later in the detailed power routing.To perform the PNS, one can run the set of following commands. 16synthesize_fp_railset_fp_rail_constraintsset_fp_rail_constraints -set_ringset_fp_block_ring_constraintsset_fp_power_pad_constraintsset_fp_rail_region_constraintsset_fp_rail_voltage_area_constraintsset_fp_rail_strategy Committing the Power PlanOnce the IR drop map meets the IR drop constraints, one can run the commit_fp_railcommand to transform the IR drop map into a power plan. Handling TLUPlus Models in Power Network SynthesisPower network synthesis supports TLUPlus models.set_fp_rail_strategy -use_tluplus true Checking Power Network Synthesis IntegrityInitially, when power network synthesis first proposes a power mesh structure, it assumes that the power pins of the mesh are connected to the hard macros and standard cells in the design. It then displays a voltage drop map that one can view to determine if it meets the voltage (IR) drop constraints. After the power mesh is committed, one might discover problem areas in design as a result of automatic or manual cell placement. These areas are referred to as chimney areas and pin connect areas.To Check the PNS Integrity one can run the following set of commands.set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_commit_check_fileset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_chimney_fileset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_chimney_file pns_chimney_reportset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_hor_chimney_layersset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_chimney_min_distset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_pad_connection file_nameset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_report_pad_connection_limitset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_report_min_pin_widthset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_hard_macro_connection file_nameset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_hard_macro_connection_limitset_fp_rail_strategy -pns_report_min_pin_width Analyzing the Power NetworkOne per form power network analysis to predict IR drop at different floorplan stages onboth complete and incomplete power nets in the design.To perform power network analysis, use the analyze_fp_rail command.To add virtual pads, use the create_fp_virtual_pad command.To ignore the hard macro blockages, use the set_fp_power_plan_constraints command. Viewing the Analysis ResultsWhen power and rail analysis are complete, one can check for the voltage drop and electromigration violations in the design by using the voltage drop map and the electromigration map. One can save the results of voltage drop and electromigration current density values to the database by economic system the CEL view that has just been analyzed. Reporting Settings for Power Network Synthesis and Power Network Analysis StrategiesTo get a report of the current values of the strategies used by power network synthesisand power network analysis by using the report_fp_rail_strategy command. 165.9 Performing Prototype Global Ro utingOne can perform prototype global routing to get an estimate of the routability and congestion of the design. Global routing is done to detect possible congestion hot spots that might exist in the floorplan due to the placement of the hard macros or inadequate channel spacing.To perform global routing, use the route_fp_proto command.5.10 Performing Hierarchical Clock PlanningThis section describes how to reduce timing closure iterations by performing hierarchical clock planning on a top-level design during the early stages of the virtual flat flow, after plan groups are created and before the hierarchy is committed. One can perform clock planning on a specified clock net or on all clock nets in the design. Setting Clock Planning OptionsTo set clock planning options, use the set_fp_clock_plan_options command. Performing Clock Planning OperationsTo perform clock planning operations, use the compile_fp_clock_plan command. Generating Clock Tree ReportsTo generate clock tree reports, use the report_clock_tree command. Using Multivoltage Designs in Clock PlanningClock planning supports multivoltage designs. Designs in multivoltage domains operate at various voltages. Multivoltage domains are connected through level-shifter cells. A level-shifter cell is a special cell that can carry signals crosswise different voltage areas. Performing Plan Group-Aware Clock Tree Synthesis in Clock PlanningWith this feature, clock tree synthesis can generate a clock tree that honors the plan groups while inserting buffers in the tree and prevent new clock buffers from being placed on top of a plan group unless they drive the entire subtree inside that particular plan group. This results in a minimum of clock feedthroughs, which makes the design easier to manage during partitioning and budgeting. 165.11 Performing In-Place OptimizationIn-place optimization is an iterative process that is based on virtual routing. Three types of optimizations are performed timing improvement, area recovery, and fixing DRC violations. T

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